Space Propulsion (2597 words) Essay Example For Students

Space Propulsion (2597 words) Essay Space PropulsionRESEARCH I/IILARRY PECANFINAL REPORT9-27-98INTRODUCTIONThe following is a research project on Space Vehicle Propulsion. It shall consist of four sections, each discussing specific topics. Section One lays out the basic ideas of rocketry. Section Two compares Rocket Propulsion Systems, and shows the basis for the comparison. It also shows how each specific Rocket System works and Section Three gives a description of how Space Propulsion has evolved and contains a conclusion. SECTION 1The BasicsSection One is a brief description of the basic properties of Rocket Systems. It defines the key terms and shows how a basic rocket works. It also shows the State if The Art. I have chosen to do my project on space vehicle propulsion. Basically, this means that my research shall be based primarily on rocketry. Rocketry is a way of propulsion that has developed in numerous ways since it was first used to propel fireworks in the 16th century. It has emerged into an extremely complicated science that few actually understand. We will write a custom essay on Space Propulsion (2597 words) specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now Most space rocketry in America is used in NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Association) space projects. NASA, a government association that focuses on space exploration, is the main user of rocket technology. It is used mostly to power their satellites and shuttles into space. Pushing an object that weighs as much as a space shuttle does directly vertical until escaping the Earths atmosphere requires a tremendous amount of power. This is why NASA uses rockets. Rockets are essentially the most powerful forms of propulsion there is today. Space Vehicle Propulsion is based rocket engines. The basic principle of rocket engine is that when fuel is burned in the engine, the reaction mass is expelled at high speeds. As a result of Newtons law of action and reaction this pushes the vehicle in the opposite direction of the one in which the reaction mass is moving. Thrust is the force that the engine exerts on all space behind it in order to ?push? the vehicle forward. Efficiency is the way that the quality of rocket engines is measured by. It is measured by the time it takes for one kilogram of propellant to create one kilogram of thrust. The goal of my research is to find out what makes these engines more efficient. In rocketry, the state of the art is extremely hard to define, since there are so many different forms of rocketry ranging from liquid propellant rockets to fireworks. The state of the art though is probably nuclear powered rockets. It is much more efficient because it does not use chemical combustion like most rockets do. Instead NFRRs (Nuclear Fission Reactor Rockets) heat hydrogen in a fission reactor which expels the propellant at blistering speeds. Much research is being done with NFRRs. They are still highly experimental because of the dangers that could be associated with them. The NERVA (Nuclear Engine for Rocket Vehicle Application) was one of the most extensive NFRR research projects, however it failed because of the inability figure out an approach to putting the research into a developmental stage. SECTION 2Specific Rocket Propulsion SystemsSection One has laid the foundation for further research in the are of rocketry. Section two shall discuss properties of efficiency in more depth, it shall lay out the types of rockets in existence now. It shall also show which type of rocket is the most efficient. After this section, the next one shall describe how the reasons for these specific rockets efficiency and depending on the outcome of that report, the topic of the fourth shall be decided. EFFICIENCYEfficiency is the most important part of my research as yet. Since the object of my research is to find out which type of rockets are the most efficient and why, the reader of this paper must have a basic understanding of efficiency. Once this is established, new definitions will come into play, all of these shall be crucial in the understanding of the paper. Terms Needed To Understand EfficiencyG- a unit of acceleration Specific Impulse (Isp)- A measurement in seconds of efficiency. Properties of EfficiencyEfficiency is the most accurate indicator of rockets performance. As stated in the aforementioned definitions, specific impulse is the basic unit of measurement of rocket efficiency. Isp is found by dividing the exhaust velocity by g (definition also mentioned above). Since velocity is measured in m/s (meters per second) and each g is equal to 9.8 m/s/s (meters per second every second), the terms cancel to leave just a unit in seconds. The resulting figure, is the duration of time for which one kilogram of propellant can produce one kilogram of thrust. Thus, a higher number represents a better, and more efficient rocket. To give the reader an idea of the average Isp of several type of rockets, I have listed some average figures for efficiency of certain types of rockets below. Average Efficiencies of Certain RocketsNext, I have listed the Isp values for some basic types of rockets. After that I shall explain some of the most well known types of rockets. .ue929b3d509113a612f8780603059c968 , .ue929b3d509113a612f8780603059c968 .postImageUrl , .ue929b3d509113a612f8780603059c968 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .ue929b3d509113a612f8780603059c968 , .ue929b3d509113a612f8780603059c968:hover , .ue929b3d509113a612f8780603059c968:visited , .ue929b3d509113a612f8780603059c968:active { border:0!important; } .ue929b3d509113a612f8780603059c968 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .ue929b3d509113a612f8780603059c968 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .ue929b3d509113a612f8780603059c968:active , .ue929b3d509113a612f8780603059c968:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .ue929b3d509113a612f8780603059c968 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .ue929b3d509113a612f8780603059c968 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .ue929b3d509113a612f8780603059c968 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .ue929b3d509113a612f8780603059c968 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .ue929b3d509113a612f8780603059c968:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .ue929b3d509113a612f8780603059c968 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .ue929b3d509113a612f8780603059c968 .ue929b3d509113a612f8780603059c968-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .ue929b3d509113a612f8780603059c968:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Assignment Art And Culture Paper EssayBasic Rocket TypesAn RPS (rocket propulsion system) is a powerplant that pushes a vehicle forward by ejecting matter that is stored within the vehicle. This matter is called propellant. The propellant is the most crucial part of moving a vehicle through space. Their energy source, the vehicles they are used on, and the type of propellant classify the specific types of systems. Liquid Propellant RocketsAll LPRs (Liquid Propelled Rockets) contain the same basic devices. The next paragraph shall discuss these functions and examine their purpose. The first such device is the thrust chamber. The thrust chamber contains an injector, a combustion chamber and a nozzle. The thrust chamber is the place where the propellants are injected, atomized, then mixed and finally burned to form reaction products in the form of gas. Next, the products are accelerated and ejected at extremely high velocities to create thrust. The injector is a series of pipes that allow the liquid propellant to move into the combustion chamber chamber to be made into thrust while atomizing and mixing them. The exhaust nozzle is the last step in the releasing of thrust. It allows the hot gas to expand and then accelerates them to supersonic velocities. On some vehicles, the nozzle acts as a steering mechanism by placing it on an electronic axis for which it can be turned by an automated steering wheel. There are two major types of feed systems used by LPRs; one uses pumps to move propellants to combustion chambers; the other, uses high pressure to expel propellants from their tanks. On most space vehicles the engines are mounted in pairs at the perimeter of the craft. Normally to opposite facing thrust chambers are controlled automatedly to turn the ship. Generally, a minimum of 12 thrust chambers is required for turning. Solid Propellant RocketsSolid Propellant Rockets (SPRs) contains a huge number of types of engines. The propellant that is to be burned is held in the combustion chamber. The propellant charge (grain) contains chemical elements for complete burning. When it is ignited, it burns on all its exposed sides. If the design of the grain is changed, then less can be exposed; the less exposed, the less fuel burned. The average burning rate is around 1.8 cc per second. The rate normally depends on the propellant ingredients. The more chamber pressure, the more propellant burnt. The way to make an efficient SPR is to pack as much solid propellant into a chamber volume as possible. Theoretically, it would be ideal to burn the propellant like a cigar, from one end to the other. For this reason, scientists created an end-burning grain, which has proved extremely successful. Electric RocketsThere are three types of electric propulsion systems (EPS); the three include electromagnetic, electrothermal and electrostatic. They are, in some ways more a rocket of the future then one of the present, somewhat like the NERVA project (see next section). In the electrothermal system the propellant is heated or vaporized electric heaters. The hot gas is then expanded through a nozzle the way it is in a chemical rocket. In an electrostatic system, interacting electrostatic fields and small charged particles such as colloidal particles achieve acceleration. In an electromagnetic rocket, acceleration is achieved by placing propellant plasma (a high temperature, electrically natural gas that contains electrons, ions and neutral molecular species) in an electromagnetic field thus causing a reaction that releases thrust. Nuclear RocketsUnlike the aforementioned rockets, nuclear rockets do not generate its power through chemical combustion. The way its power is formed, is through nuclear fission. It heats a propellant like hydrogen in a fission reactor and the explosion expels the propellant at amazing speeds, which exceed twice what any other rocket can produce. Its efficiency rating is around 850, as compared to the 450 of the next best ty pe, the cryogenic rocket. Unfortunately due to the extreme dangers of nuclear fission inside a shuttle, the main project for researching the nuclear rockets, NERVA, was scrubbed. Most likely, in the future, scientists will devise a plan to minimize the risks, whereupon research will begin again. SECTION 3A HistoryINTRODUCTIONThe third section of this report shall begin by indicating the steps in which rocketry was created, as to allow the reader of this paper to better understand the way rockets work. It shall show the works of Tsiolkovsky, Goddard, Oberth and a few others. The report shall then end in a detailed conclusion. The conclusion will be based on the summary and discuss all that has been written. It shall end in giving opinions as to the future uses of the specific areas found in the research. Development of Modern RocketryEARLY HISTORYIn around 1232 AD, in China, rockets were created. During the war with the Mongols, the Chinese would strap an early form of gunpowder to the shaft of an arrow. This made them fly longer and faster than any of the regular arrows that the Mongols used. About ten years later, in Europe, another major discovery was made. An Englishman, Robert Bacon, created a more practical formula for gunpowder. He did this by mixing 41.2 parts saltpeter, 29.4 parts charcoal and 29.4 parts sulfur. He was able to distill saltpeter, which produces oxygen, to allow the rocket to burn faster. .u0ca094ea053a68ee495649a056c38f4c , .u0ca094ea053a68ee495649a056c38f4c .postImageUrl , .u0ca094ea053a68ee495649a056c38f4c .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u0ca094ea053a68ee495649a056c38f4c , .u0ca094ea053a68ee495649a056c38f4c:hover , .u0ca094ea053a68ee495649a056c38f4c:visited , .u0ca094ea053a68ee495649a056c38f4c:active { border:0!important; } .u0ca094ea053a68ee495649a056c38f4c .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u0ca094ea053a68ee495649a056c38f4c { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u0ca094ea053a68ee495649a056c38f4c:active , .u0ca094ea053a68ee495649a056c38f4c:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u0ca094ea053a68ee495649a056c38f4c .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u0ca094ea053a68ee495649a056c38f4c .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u0ca094ea053a68ee495649a056c38f4c .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u0ca094ea053a68ee495649a056c38f4c .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u0ca094ea053a68ee495649a056c38f4c:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u0ca094ea053a68ee495649a056c38f4c .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u0ca094ea053a68ee495649a056c38f4c .u0ca094ea053a68ee495649a056c38f4c-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u0ca094ea053a68ee495649a056c38f4c:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: African Americans and Cardiovascular Disease EssayIn the 18th century, the British encounter encountered rocket warfare with India. The Indians probably learned the secret of rocket treat from Arab traders in the 17th century. The Indians, who were led by Hyder Ali, gave thousands of men the task of throwing rockets. The rockets were first thrown, then propelled itself. They attached an eight foot long bamboo stalk to six pound iron tube filled with fuse and powder. The rockets were able to fly up to 1.5 miles. Modern DiscoveriesTsiolkovskyTsiolkovsky, a Russian teacher, established that a rocket would work in the vacuum of space, in 1883. In 1903, he wrote a book explaining how space travel was possible, using liquid propelled rockets. He created drawings of possible space ships propelled by either liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen or liquid oxygen and kerosene. The sketches also show valves to transport the liquid propellant into a combustion chamber and showed how vanes could be created in the exhaust for steering. He also illustrated the crew lying on their backs in a pressurized cabin in order to withstand the pressure of such high speeds. Tsiolkovsky also thought of rocket staging. Rocket staging is a series of rockets that fire one after the other. When one finishes and the other fires, the useless rocket is jettisoned. He thought this was the only way to put heavy objects such as satellites into space. GoddardAlthough Tsiolkovsky thought up the ideas of advanced rocketry, still more had to be considered, and it had to become reality. The next pioneer, was the father of American rocketry, Robert Goddard. He first, created a bazooka type rocket. The bazooka was fairly large solid-propellant rocket. In 1919, he wrote a text called A Method of Reaching Extreme Altitudes. Two years later, he bagan to experiment with the liquid fuels that Tsiolkovsky. In 1926, Goddard finally launched the first liquid propelled rocket. It was fueled by gasoline and liquid oxygen. It rose to a height of 41 feet and traveled at 60 miles per hour. It only traveled 56 meters but it set the foundation for the future of rocketry. In May 1935, he released a rocket that featured gyro controlled exhaust vanes which pushed it to travel 1.5 miles above the ground at a totally unprecedented 700 miles per hour. GERMAN ROCKET SCIENTISTSIn 1923 a German rocket scientist Hermann Oberth published The Rocket Into Planetary Space. He favored liquid propellants, as Goddard, because of their power. His experimentation inspired the creation of the Society for Space Travel. The society passionately experimented with ways to improve the liquid propellant rocket. On February 21, 1931, a member of The Society for Space Travel, Johannes Winkler, launched the second liquid fuel rocket. Winklers rocket was propelled by liquid methane and liquid oxygen. It failed totally, going a mere ten feet forward. Three weeks later another rocket ascended to about 2000 feet. The entire Society for Space Travel began working on two rocket series, the Mirak and Repulsor. The late model Repulsors could reach an altitude of 1 mile. When The Society for Space Travel ran out of money, they made a demonstration of the Repulsor for the German Army. A member, Werner Von Braun compiled some statistics for the army who gave it to Hitler. They realized that this did not violate the treaty which did not allow them to build airplanes. Hitler started the Army Weapons Department. Von Braun was placed in charge of rocket development. Within a few years Von Braun was experimenting with highly developed rockets and was firing them in secret at the island of Birkum. In 1934 he created two rockets, that could ascend to over 1.5 miles. After that, The Society for Space Travel fell apart due to financial problems. In 1937, a rocket research station was constructed on the Baltic coast. Here the Germans created such rockets as the famous V-1 Buzz Bombs, and the mammoth V-2 which were really rocket-powered flying bombs. ConclusionIn this research, it has been demonstrated how all rocket engines work. It illustrates how propellants a re moved into a combustion chamber, and expelled at extremely high speeds. It shows the properties of efficiency, the basic measure by which all rockets are compared. It shows how efficiency is measure by specific impulse, which is calculated by the propellants exhaust velocity divided by g. It has given a basic comparison as to the efficiency of various rockets and has shown the reasons for being at their respective ranks. Also shown, is the pioneering of rocketry starting in the mid 1200s. All this has shown the basic properties of space propulsionBibliographyhttp://www.asi.org/adb/04/03/09/01/ the Rocket Engine Specifications page from the Artemis Project(http://www.asi.org/ ) Data Bookhttp://www.orbireport.com/Data.html-the Orbital Report News Agencys Launch Vehicle databasehttp://leonardo.jpl.nasa.gov/msl/home.html JPLs Mission ; Spacecraft Libraryhttp://solar.rtd.utk.edu/%7Emwade/spaceflt.htm Mark Wades Encyclopedia Astronauticahttp://www.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/technology/sts-ne wsref/stsref-toc.html The Space Shuttle Reference Manualhttp://nmp.jpl.nasa.gov/ds1/tech/sep.html Solar electric propulsion on the Deep Space 1 probe?Rockets? Sutton, George P Groliers Online EncyclopediaEngineering

How to Conjugate the Verb Sapere in Italian

How to Conjugate the Verb Sapere in Italian â€Å"Sapere† is often one of the first verbs Italian language students learn, because learning how to say â€Å"I don’t know (non lo so) in the midst of lots of fast speech is essential. So, in this article, you can expand your knowledge of this verb with examples and all of its conjugations. Definition of Sapere To knowTo know how toTo be aware ofTo learn Sapere Conjugation Sapere can be a transitive verb, which requires a direct object, and an intransitive verb, which does not. In both forms, it is conjugated with the auxiliary verb avere.The infinito is sapere.The participio passato is saputo.The gerund form is sapendo.The past gerund form is avendo saputo. Indicativo/Indicative Il presente io so noi sappiamo tu sai voi sapete lui, lei, Lei sa Essi, Loro sanno Esempi: Non lo so. I don’t know.Mi sa dire dov’à ¨ la Piazza di Pietra?  Can you let me know where Piazza di Pietra is? Il passato prossimo io ho saputo noi abbiamo saputo tu hai saputo voi avete saputo lui, lei, Lei, ha saputo loro, essi hanno saputo Esempi: E poi ho saputo che mi aveva detto un sacco di bugie! And then I found out that he had told me a ton of lies!Hanno saputo che il museo era chiuso subito dopo aveva iniziato a piovere. They found out the museum was closed right after it started to rain. L’imperfetto io sapevo noi sapevamo tu sapevi voi sapevate lui, lei, Lei sapeva loro, essi sapevano Esempi: Non sapevo cosa dovevo fare! I didn’t know what I should do!Linda sapeva suonare la chitarra quando aveva sette anni, ma ha dimenticato tutto. Linda knew how to play the guitar when she was seven years old, but she has forgotten everything. Il trapassato prossimo io avevo saputo noi avevamo saputo tu avevi saputo voi avevate saputo lui, lei, Lei aveva saputo loro, essi avevano saputo Esempi: Aveva saputo che sarei venutoa a Roma. He had heard that I would be coming to Rome.Mi disse che avevate saputo quello che era successo. She told me that you all heard what had happened. Il passato remoto io seppi noi sapemmo tu sapesti voi sapeste lui, lei, Lei seppe loro, essi seppero Esempi: Non seppi nà ¨ leggere nà ¨ scrivere fino alla maggiore et. I didn’t know how to read nor how to write till I was 18.Nessuno seppe che ero partito. No one knew that I had left. Il trapassato remoto io ebbi saputo noi avemmo saputo tu avesti saputo voi aveste saputo lui, lei, Lei ebbe saputo loro, essi ebbero saputo This tense is rarely used, so don’t worry too much about mastering it. You’ll find it only in very sophisticated writing. Il futuro semplice io sapr noi sapremo tu saprai voi saprete lui, lei, Lei sapr loro, essi sapranno Esempi: Ti farà ² sapere non appena ne saprà ² di pià ¹. I’ll let you know as soon as I find out more about it.Spero che queste persone sapranno arrivare al ristorante! Noi ci siamo persi. I hope these people will manage to get to the restaurant! We got lost! Il futuro anteriore io avr saputo noi avremo saputo tu avrai saputo voi avrete saputo lui, lei, Lei avr saputo loro, essi avranno saputo Esempi: Deciderà ² quando avrà ² saputo come à ¨ andata tutta la faccenda! I’ll make a decision as soon as I know the matter went.Sicuramente avranno saputo del tuo viaggio per l’Italia! Surely they will have heard about your trip through  Italy! Congiuntivo/Subjunctive Il presente che io sappia che noi sappiamo che tu sappia che voi sappiate che lui, lei, Lei sappia che loro, essi sappiano Esempi: Non credo che tu non sappia la verit! I can’t believe that you don’t know the truth.Penso che sappiano suonare gli strumenti, avevano una banda cinque anni fa! I think they know how to play instruments, they had a band five years ago. Il passato io abbia saputo noi abbiamo saputo tu abbia saputo voi abbiate saputo lui, lei, Lei abbia saputo loro, essi abbiano saputo Esempi: Suppongo non abbiano saputo le notizie di oggi. I suppose they hadn’t heard today’s news.Peccato che non abbia saputo che fossimo qua, ieri sera ci avrebbe potuto raggiungere per cena. It’s a shame that he didn’t know we were here, he could have caught up with us for dinner last night. L’imperfetto io sapessi noi sapessimo tu sapessi voi sapeste lui, lei, Lei sapesse loro, essi sapessero Esempi: Non sapevo che pure lui sapesse la verit! Che brutta figura! I didn’t know that he also knew the truth! How embarrassing!Scusa! Pensavo che tu sapessi come si usa il metro a Roma, altrimenti te lo avrei detto prima. Sorry! I thought that you knew how one uses the metro in Rome, otherwise, I would have told you about it  first. Il trapassato prossimo io avessi saputo noi avessimo saputo tu avessi saputo voi aveste saputo lui, lei, Lei avesse saputo loro, essi avessero saputo Esempi: Se io avessi saputo cantare, sarei andato su quel palco scenico. If I had known how to sing, I would have gone up on that stage.Se avessimo saputo le notizie di Giulia prima, non le avremmo detto del matrimonio di Roberto! If we had heard Giulia’s news first, we wouldn’t have told her about Roberto’s wedding! Condizionale/Conditional Il presente io saprei noi sapremmo tu sapresti voi sapreste lui, lei, Lei saprebbe te loro, essi saprebbero Esempi: Se solo avessi frequentato le lezioni di piano, adesso saprei come suonarlo! If only I had  been attending piano lessons, I would know how to play it now!Insegnare una lingua? Sembra qualcosa che Rachele saprebbe fare! Teaching a language? It seems like something Rachel would know how to do. Il passato io avrei saputo noi avremmo saputo tu avresti saputo voi avreste saputo lui, lei, Lei avrebbe saputo loro, Loro avrebbero saputo Se avessi detto il segreto a Marco, poi tutto il mondo l’avrebbe saputo! If you had told Marco the secret, then the whole world would have found out about it.Carlotta, scusa, ma sono confusa e Rachele mi ha detto che avresti saputo cosa fare. Carlotta, sorry, but I’m confused and Rachel told me that you would know what to do.

Edexcel Strategic Marketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

Edexcel Strategic Marketing - Essay Example In the context of strategic marketing, strategic planning can help managers to align the business strategies with the market trends and culture (Czinkota and Ronkainen 2007). The assessment of market conditions while developing a strategic marketing plan helps managers to understand the level of competition. In this way, managers are able to identify strategies that will enhance their firm’s competitiveness (Czinkota and Ronkainen 2007). From a similar point of view, McDonald and Wilson (2011) state that strategic marketing can help towards the improvement of communication and cooperation across organization. More specifically, in order for the strategic marketing process to be completed it is necessary for employees at all levels of the organizational hierarchy to cooperate and exchange views (McDonald and Wilson 2011). In addition, strategic marketing leads to the development of marketing plans that are fully aligned with the needs and the potentials of each organization (Stanco 1996). This means that each strategic marketing plan is unique, being adjusted to the characteristics of a specific organization (Stanco 1996). McLoughlin and Aaker (2010) explain that modern marketing is quite tactical. In fact, modern marketing has become ‘part of the strategic management of the organization’ (McLoughlin and Aaker 2010, p.15). In Apple, strategic marketing is used for keeping the competitiveness of the organization at high levels. Indeed, organization has traditionally focused on two key targets: innovation of products and rapid entry of the products in the market (Mohr 2009). In Apple, the use of strategic marketing has helped not only to achieve these targets but also to cover the gaps caused by mistakes in evaluating the market response towards a firm’s product (Mohr 2009). The case of iTunes is an indicative example. Apple developed iTunes

Discuss the purpose and process of budgetary control Assignment

Discuss the purpose and process of budgetary control - Assignment Example Budget control is the process of managing individual items in a budget such that expenses arising from them do not rise above the forecasted amount in the budget estimates. Budget control helps an organization/ entity to plan adequately for the future. It also helps the organization to evaluate adherence to set policies. Through budgetary control, the organization is able to minimize wastage and inefficiency (Pollitt, 2001). In itself, the budget is a tool for expenditure control within a firm. In order to stick to the laid out expenditure program and prevent excessive spending, the organization has to carry out effective budget control measures, both before and after planning. Below is an outline of the main steps of budgetary control. This phase involves drawing up a list of policy guidelines for the firm that will guide both the management and lower-level employees in their daily operations. Integrating long term policies with short term ones forms a basis for periodic evaluation of success in implementing a set of policy guidelines. Several objectives that guide the business are laid out in order of prioritization. Besides profitability, which is the key objective of most business organizations, quality, market positioning, product differentiation and cost leadership form some of the more common goals that guide policy formulation (Toigo and Woods, 2006). Whereas policy harmonization is key to achievement of set goals, each level of management rolls out several objectives that guide its specific situation. However, the goals must work towards achieving the corporate objectives laid out by the top management. Each function that is deemed to complement achievement of policies formulated is listed together with its expected costs/ revenue. The forecasts should be made at both the micro and macro levels. Micro level forecasts involve activity based costs, while macro level forecasts involve transaction

The Greatest Show On Earth by Richard Dawkins Essay

The Greatest Show On Earth by Richard Dawkins - Essay Example Dawkins makes the case that every form of life on this planet was created by way of non random natural selection, which in other words is understood as evolution (Ings, 2009). People who believe differently base their decisions on things that cannot be considered as evidence. Dawkins writes that natural selection has undergone different phases of rejection that were followed by acceptance. The author refers to intelligent design in terms of the ways in which every kind of life on Earth is created through some kind of natural selection, which is explained through reference to research on the evolution of bacteria carried out by Lenski. Dawkins has taken pains in claiming that intelligent design is a valid explanation for every aspect of nature, which is supported by the theory of evolution. It is in this context that he writes â€Å"evolution is a fact. Beyond reasonable doubt, beyond serious doubt, beyond sane, informed, intelligent doubt† (Dawkins, 2009, p.12). The primary objective of the author is to provide evidence for people that the theory of evolution is as good as any scientific fact. He states on page 85 of the book that â€Å"evolutionary scientists are in the position of detectives who come late to the scene of crime† (Dawkins, 2009, p.85). In making this statement he means that it becomes difficult to prove the evolutionary process to those that deny or doubt history. He refers to evolution repeatedly in his book and wants readers to understand how natural changes have been brought on the planet through microevolution and macroevolution. In explaining that science determines temporal sequence Dawkins has written that nature has clocks that ascertain the time taken for the effects of evolution to emerge. He means that evolutionary scientists have to make use of such wide range of clocks in terms of the processes available for dating

The Iranian Revolution And Khomeini Ideas

The Iranian Revolution And Khomeini Ideas The Iranian Revolution, also called the Islamic Revolution took place in 1979. It marked events involving the demise of Irans monarchy by bringing down the US-backed Shah of Iran, Muhammad Reza Pahlavi. The revolution placed Ayotullah Rohullah Khomeini in control of Iran. Ayotullah Rohullah Khomeini was the leader of the revolution and changed Iran into in Islamic Republic. Imam Rohullah Al-Musavi Al-Khomeini, in short, Ayotullah Khomeini, was born on September 24, 1902. He belonged to a family that had religiously strong traditions. They resided in Khumayn, located in the west of Tehran. When Ayotullah Khomeni was nineteen years old he went to study religious science where his education under notable figures exposed him to religious traditions, political activism and learning. He excelled in a lot of subjects but mastered ethics and philosophy. Though he is widely known as a revolutionary leader with a remarkable success in the political field, initially he was famous as a writer an d a teacher residing in Qom. Qom had a status dignified learning center and rose as spiritual capital in Iran. His area of concern was devotional and mystical matters. But from spirituality and mysticism, he never meant social isolation and political inertness. Instead he advocated energetic natural expression on the socio-political frame. His life indicates that an Islamic revolution has its roots in spiritual and moral realm. During his early years in Qom, his activities were in contrast with the establishing Pahlavi state by Shah of Iran, Reza Khan. Reza Khan changed the monarchy in Iran into a totalitarian dictatorship. His major objective was to wipe out Islam as a cultural, political and social power. Imam Khomeini not only witnessed these efforts of Reza Khan directly but also got news regularly from cities like Tabriz, Mashhad and Isfahan. All this deeply affected him. In the later years Muhammad Reza, son of Reza Khan became the Shah of Iran and continued the exploitive agenda regarding religious institutions. Imam Khomeini touched the political field for the first time in 1941 when he gave a political public statement in his book Kashf al-Asrar. In 1962 Imam Khomeini became the leader of Qom. His aim became to fight back Shah at a time when not many dared to do so. He announced his support to religious institutions. For example he lent his support to students who were protesting against the permission to open liquor stores in the city. After that he moved towards matters of bigger significance. In October 1962 he united with the religious leaders throughout the country and vigorously protested against the law allowing non-Muslim males and females to participate in elections to local assemblies. This resulted in building an alliance of religious scholars that would stand for the fundamental rights. In 1963 he confronted the Shah, who was trying to propagate reforms in economic and socio-political life if Iran. These efforts by Shah were designated as White Revolution. The White Revolution was a deceiving program constituted on six points. The real aim was to restrain the growing clerical influence against Shah in Iran. Imam Khomeini made public a strong and hard declaration in which he denounced the Shah and his Western agenda. He accused the Shah of violating the constitution, spreading morally corrupt objectives and compliance with USA and Israel. The Shah successfully got the clauses of this revolution approved through a fake referendum on January 26, 1963. The measures taken under the flag of White Revolution were largely perceived by the Iranian society as a dictation by United States. The goal was to augment Shahs wealth and power and sustenance of US dominance. Imam Khomeini denounced the revolution and exposed the aims and objectives underlying it. He preached lectures from Fayziya Madrasa that had impact in the whole nation. On March 22, 1963 the Shah sent paratroopers who attacked Fayziya Madrasa resulting in the death of numerous students and rummage of madrasa. It didnt intimidate Imam Khomeini much. Instead it ignited an unprecedented struggle directed against the blunders and wrongdoings of the regime. The attack was perceived as a symbolic action showing the hostile attitude of the regime towards Islam and the ruthless expression towards Islamic institutions. After all these actions Imam Khomeini came out stronger. He kept denouncing the Shah and his regime. He cursed the Shah for his authoritarian nature. He called him a puppet of United States and criticized his growing association with Israel. On June 3, 1963 the afternoon of Ashoura (10th day of Muharram according to the Muslim calendar) he denounced the Shah by calling him a wretched miserable man and warned him to alter his ways otherwise people will celebrate the day he departs from Iran. He was arrested because of that speech on June 5, 1963. This led to major protests for three days throughout Iran. There was disgust among the public against the regime and a shocking uprising took place. In Qom, Shiraz, Isfahan, Mashhad, Tehran and many other cities well equipped army of Shah trained by United States was confronted by defenseless demonstrators. It is estimated that some 15,000 pro-Khomeini protesters were killed by the Shahs forces in these protests. This uprising acted as a fulc rum in the struggle against the regime. Imam Khomeini became a national leader. He became an aspiration to the whole nation to stand against the Shah and the foreign supporters backing up Shah. He provided a rational and logical Islamic ideology. He introduced a political road map guided by religious leadership rather than by the secular parties. The uprising was curbed but the mass public and religious scholars could not endure the detention of Imam Khomeini. Demonstration continued all over the country and several religious personalities pressed on Tehran for his release. On April 6, 1964 the government released him, issuing a statement that he has contracted to abstain from any activity of political nature as a condition for his liberation. This was later refuted by him. He carried on his condemnation of the Shah and his regime with more vitality. In October 1964, the Shah proved his submission to the US by granting legal immunity to the US personnel. This gave the US personnel the right to commit all offenses in the Iranian boundaries. It was evident now that the Shah was a puppet at the hands of United States. The Iranian Majlis approved this measure. On the very next day i.e. October 27, Imam Khomeini wrathfully denounced this and called it an outright attack on the independence and sovereignty of Iran. Imam Khomeini was now becoming a serious nuisance for the Shah and his foreign supporters. All efforts to intimidate Imam Khomeini into silence proved futile. Hence an attempt to destroy his strengthening influence was made by sending him to exile. Therefore, on November 4, 1964 Imam Khomeini was arrested and exiled to Turkey. He stayed in Ankara for a while and than moved to Bursa. The Shahs regime was pressurized to allow Imam Khomeini to a better place than Turkey. The permission was given on October 1965 and Imam Khomein i moved to Najaf, considered by the Shii sect as a shrine city in Iraq. He took residence in Najaf for the next thirteen years. On the other side, the Shahs regime set itself free from the pressure they were previously bearing and thought that the religious establishment of Najaf will overshadow Imam Khomeini. But they were wrong. Not only did Imam Khomeini created himself as a sound presence in Najaf but also kept maintaining his popularity and influence in Iran. His public statements concerning Iranian development were smuggled and circulated in the country. He addressed the Muslim world and his messages were distributed in Mecca several times. He was visited by prominent Iranian and Muslim religious figures from time to time during his years in exile. He was never forgotten by the people of Iran. His name and his cause lived in the Iranian people. He was an inspiration for numerous religious groups and scholars who carried on building the foundations previously laid by Imam Khomeini. Unaware by many foreign onlookers, an Islamic association of immense span and insight was formed. It was understood that Imam Khomeini would come up as a leader and guide the Islamic Revolution taking place in 1978-1979. Though he was physically absent but he lived in the hearts of the Iranian people and was an aspiration to them. On November 23, 1977 a tragic thing happened. Hajj Mustafa, Khomeinis elder son, died unexpectedly in Najaf. He was assassinated by SAVAR, a US-instituted security police of the Shah. Imam Khomeini faced this grief patiently. This tragedy provoked the Iranian public. People became rebellious and this rebel turned into a revolution. On January 8, 1978 a government statement came labeling Imam Khomeini as an agent working for foreign powers. This invited a public outrage. Protests broke out in Qom which resulted in a large number of casualties. These series of protests combined the whole country in the revolutionary passion and continued till the summer of 1978. Imam Khomeini kept encouraging the steadfastness of the people and boosted them to attain their goal i.e. the demise of monarchy building of an Islamic state. The Shahs regime made another attempt to bring down the revolution by requesting the Baathist government of Iraq to expel Imam Khomeini from their country. The Shah thought this would destroy his base of operation and the revolution will lose its leadership. Imam Khomeini was never satisfied with the governments that have been ruling Iraq. He considered Syria and Algeria as a good option but no Muslim country welcomed him to stay and carry on his political activity. In October 1978, Imam Khomeini went to France and took residence at Nauphle-le-Chateau, which is situated near Paris. The residence in France proved to be very beneficial for Imam Khomeini. The communication became easier, international media also jumped in and he was able to address to a global audience. In December 1978, the month of Muharram also came. Demonstrations on a large scale took place in Tehran and other major cities aiming to overthrow the monarchy and replacing it with an Islamic state under Imam Khomeini. The Shah touched the extremes of brutality. The streets were flowing with the blood of thousands of slaughtered demonstrators, the people held in jails were tortured and abused, and the wounded were massacred in the hospitals by the Shahs forces. United States, Israel and many foreign states supported this. It seemed like a holocaust but this time done by the Jews. Despite the unflinching US support the corrupt and homicidal rule of the Shah was taking its last breathes. A substitute administration was made under Shahpur Bakhtiar and finally, the Shah left Iran for good on January 16, 1979. The public come out on the streets full of joy and happiness. People celebrated their victory. On February 1, 1979 Imam Khomeini returned to Iran and was welcomed by millions of Iranians at the airport. Throughout the revolution Imam Khomeini showed characteristics of high values; Spirituality, self discipline determination, leadership, compassion, asceticism, erudition, sobriety, political ingenuity and hatred of imperialism. He was undoubtedly the teacher and director of the Islamic Revolution in Iran. In his lectures that were given in Najaf between January 21 and February 8, 1970, which were later combined under the title of Islamic Government (Hukumat-i-Islami) three key points come to surface. The need for founding Islamic socio-political institutions Obligation of religious personalities (the fuqaha)to construct and Islamic republic Islamic republic that takes self reform measures Imam Khomeini said in his lectures that a society cannot be reformed alone on an organization of laws. It is important that a power and an executor are present to ensure the law. That is why Allah Almighty not only provided an ordinance of law (sharia) but also gave a structure of government well supported by administrative and executive institutions. The last Messenger of Allah is a practical example of such a government. He executed the institutions in the Muslim society. The Prophet established the ordinance of law in Islam. This duty was later carried by the successors of the Prophet. It was the need that someone continues executing the laws and establishing the Islamic institutions in the society. It is very important that there is some executor of the social institutions and the law. Legislation if alone couldnt do much good for the well being of humans. The executor, known as, vali amr, is responsible for implementation of the law and the courts verdict. He said that the life of prophet is in itself a practical example of establishing an Islamic State. He said that the Prophet laid foundations of a government, implemented laws, established Islamic ordinances, and administered the society. He appointed governors, judges and also worked as a judge himself. He sent diplomats to different states, chiefs and kings, completed pacts and treatise, commanded the army in battles. In a nutshell, he performed all the functions required in a government. He appointed his successor himself. This showed the necessity of a stable working government even after Prophet Muhammad departs from the world. Imam Khomeini said that the ratification of Islamic law was not limited to the times of Prophet. The Islamic ordinances are permanent and hold practical value till the end of times. The Islamic system of government is not restricted to the old times. The taxation system, economic system, social system laid down by Islam holds its relevance till the end. A fully functioning government together with its administrative and executives bodies is compulsory. If the political system is repugnant to the Islamic teachings than such a system would result in tyranny, corruption, moral drain, anarchy and chaos. Imam Khomeini questioned the putting aside of Islamic laws to promote anarchy. He questioned the calling of Islamic Laws as old and impractical. Allah has not limited the legitimacy of his of the laws He sent to earth. Imam Khomeini hardly denounced those who believe that Islamic laws dont hold their validity anymore. Imam Khomeini criticized the western taxation system. He supported the Islamic system of through kharaj, zakat, khums and jizya. He said that those who do not support the Islamic system challenge the legitimacy and universality of Islam and the faith. Government was always considered a necessity during the time of Prophet and afterwards. Governments were made during the reign of Caliphs. Sharia provides us with sufficient proof regarding the need of a government in all times. Sharia is the embodiment of diverse laws covering all aspects of a society. The laws in this system are a complete guidance of to meeting the needs of all humans, dealing the neighbors, other citizens, races, relatives, children, marital and personal life, laws regarding peace and war, foreign policy, diplomatic relations with other nations, laws related to trade, agriculture, commercialization. It gives guidance about the constitution of marriage institution, the right procedure to contract it, the fostering of child in the womb, the responsibilities of the parents during the time the infant is nourishing and growing, the interaction of husband, wife, and the children. Islam offers a complete code of conduct for the humanity. It ensures virtue, morals and healthy economic and social relations. The ordinances and laws needed by man are all present in the Holy Quran and Sunnah. These laws will help in attaining happiness and making the state perfect. Imam Khomeini swore that the Quran has everything that a man needs. It is not possible to execute Allahs order without the formation of proper executive and administrative organs that would strengthen the establishing of a government. Imam Khomeini mentions some provisions to substantiate his argument. The taxation system introduced by Islam is not meant to feed the poor and needy only. They also build bases for establishing a grand government and bear the essential expenses for it. The example could be given of khums, which is a type of tax, and acts as a source of revenue for the treasury. It is believed that khums is levied on all natural resources, commercial and agriculture profits in an equal manner. It applied to everyone on equal terms as they have to pay one-fifth on their income that is surplus. This large income will serve the function of administering the Islamic republic and fulfilling its financial requirements. If this one fifth portion of the surplus income of Muslims is calculated, it will become evident that the imposing of such a tax is not for the reason of feeding the poor and hungry but for a larger cause i.e. fulfilling the financial requirements of the government institutions and its important bodies. Imam Khomeini emphasized on establishing a government bas ed on the Islamic taxation system which comprised of khums, jizya, zakat and kharaj. He said that the large budget provided by the income from khums, was for the reason of establishing a government that administered the Islamic domain. It was formed to fulfill the needs of people by providing the public with services related to health, defense, educational and economic welfare. Furthermore, Islam laid down principles for the compilation, safeguarding and disbursement of the income from khums. Any illegal take over or embezzlement of this income is strictly forbidden. The head of state and government members do not practice any privilege over a common inhabitant when it comes to public wealth and income. Another type of tax is jizya, has been made compulsory for ahl adh-dhimma, and kharaj is imposed on land that is of agricultural value. These two sources also add considerable amount of revenue. The forming of these taxes proves that it is necessary that a government and a ruler exist. It is the responsibility of the governor or ruler that taxes is imposed correctly on ahl adh-dhimma according to their financial ability and income. The ruler should also fix proper taxes on their livestock and agricultural land. Kharaj tax is also imposed on the land that is in the ownership of the Islamic republic. In order to implement these taxes laws should be established, institutions should be built, and administrative bodies should be working. Otherwise it would be impossible for such taxes to be carried out. The in charge of the state is responsible for carrying out these taxes honestly and aiming them for the larger good of the public. The rules relating the safeguard of the Islamic defense and order of the territory and the freedom of Islamic nation also calls for the establishment of a government. It is said in the Quran: Prepare against them, whatever force you can muster and horses tethered (Quran 8:60) This shows that a well equipped defensive Muslim force should always be ready and vigilant. It should be alert even during peace. Imam Khomeini said that if Muslims had acted on this verse a strong government would have been formed and preparations of a war would have been made beforehand. A small bunch of Jews would not have even thought to take over our lands and destroyed Masjid al-Aqsa. If the Muslims had fulfilled their responsibility of carrying out Gods orders and laws, and established a respectable and righteous government than all this would not have taken place. If the leaders of Muslims are true representatives of Gods laws than they would overcome all their differences and unite together as one. A bunch of Jews couldnt harm us then, even if they get all their support from US and other foreign countries. As it is said in the Quran, Prepare against them, whatever force you can muster this means that we should be well-prepared and strong and ever-ready against the oppression that the enemies will try to cause us. Unfortunately we are licking in preparedness, strength and unity and thats why we are suffering at the hands of foreign evils. There are a number of conditions of the law that are not possible to be imposed unless a government is established. The example could be given of blood money, which is used to support the deserving and physical penalties laid down by the law, which have to be supervised by the ruler of the Islamic state. These laws and ordinances remind us the necessity if a government and strong institutions that have the power which makes them capable to perform these functions in the best way. After the death of Prophet the Umayyads went against Ali ibn Abi Talib and started to cause instability in the Islamic state. They moved away from the formation of a government that has been ordered by God Almighty. They changed the basis of the entire government. The policies they introduced were in contradiction to Islamic laws and ordinances. The Abbasids and Umayyads pursued anit-Islamic administrative and political policies and established a government that was against Gods teachings. The government they established later on converted into a complete monarchy. Their government was just like the governments of Roman emperors, Egyptian pharaohs and Iranian kings. Imam Khomeini called them non-Islamic governments that have been carried on to the future. Both the law and logic tell us that such anti-Islamic and non-Islamic governments should not be permitted. The reasons are very clear. In a non-Islamic form of government the orders of Islamic politics couldnt be implemented. Imam Khomeini said that the non-Islamic forms of government are the system made by the infidels (kafir). It is the obligation of every Muslim to eradicate all the traces of such a system from their society and perish them. It is our responsibility to create a social atmosphere that ensures the education of individuals who have faith and virtue. But such an atmosphere is in total contradiction with the rule of the infidels and their illegal power. Imam Khomeini said that the corruption is Iran is the result of the kafir mode of government. The corruption has to be swept and the culprits should be caught and hanged. He related this corruption to the corruption of the pharaohs in Egypt. It is not possible for a faith-practicing, God-fearing and just Muslim to survi ve in such a socio-political situation. The condition leaves the individuals with two choices. Either he submits to the will of kufr and betrays God or he refuses to commit the acts that the kufr commands and stands against him to destroy the corrupt system. Being true Muslims we have no choice but to destroy the form of government that is full of corruption, tyranny, treachery, oppression and crimes. This is the obligation of every Muslim of the world, a duty he must accomplish to ensure the political Islamic revolution. The tyrannical and imperialist rulers have segregated the Islamic land. They have divided the Islamic umma into numerous segments and virtually created detached nations. The imperialists of Austria, Russia, Britain and others divided the great Ottoman Empire. This happened partly because of the incompetency and corruption of the rulers of the Ottoman. They took a wrong step y following the system of monarchy. The Ottoman Empire was a threat to the evil imperialists. They were afraid that righteous men will rise up and take control of the state and destroy the imperialism to its roots. Therefore after World War I the imperialists divided the Ottoman Empire into fifteen small states. The imperialists started controlling them with the help of their agents. Imam Khomeini said that if we want to unite the Muslim umma, if we want liberate the Islamic land form the claws of imperialists, if we want to overthrow the puppet governments than it is crucial that formation of a government that is in accordance with the Islamic laws and ordinance takes place. The establishment of such a government will safeguard the disciplined Muslim unity. He quotes the address of Fatimat az-Zahra: The Imamate exists for the sake of preserving order among the Muslims and replacing disunity with unity Imam Khomeini revealed the evil deeds of the imperialists by saying that the imperialists have appointed their political agents in the countries. They have imposed an economic system full of injustice. As result the people are divided into two distinct groups: oppressors and oppressed. The oppressed are deprived of the basic necessities of life while the oppressors enjoy the all the wealth through corruption and tyranny. The hungry oppressed people have tried to cut loose their chains from the cruelty of the overlords and their struggle has been going on till today. But the ruling class and imperialist government structures have hindered their way. It is our responsibility to rescue the deprived and oppressed. We should confront the oppressor. Imam Khomeini said that it is an obligation for Islamic scholars to thrive against the oppressors and let the not succeed in establishing a monopoly on the wealth resources. The Islamic scholars should fight for the masses and to save them from hunger and deprivation and stand against the oppressors usurping the wealth of the people. He quotes the following saying: I swear by Him Who causes the seed to open and create the souls of all living things that were it not for the presence of those who have come to swear allegiance to me, were it not for the obligation of the ruler-ship now imposed upon me by the availability of aid and support, and were it not for the pledge that God has taken form the scholars of Islam not to remain silent in the face of gluttony and plundering of the oppressors, on the one hand, and the harrowing hunger and deprivation of the of the oppressed on the other hand were it not for all of this, then I would abandon the reins of government and in no way seek it. You would see that this world of yours, with all of its position and rank, is less in my eyes than the moisture that comes from the sneeze of a goat. Imam Khomeini said that it is not the time to sit silent. The time has come to rise against the traitors, puppets of foreign imperialists, and tyrants who have the blood and sweat, wealth and income of the Muslims nationwide. They have snatched the prosperity from the Muslims. It is the responsibility of the scholars of Islam and all the Muslims to destroy this system that has enslaved us. We will overthrow the anti-Islamic governments to bring welfare to millions of Muslims by the formation of a government on the foundations of Islam. Imam Khomeini said that the rules and regulations laid down by Islam prevent the exploitation of the weak by the oppressors. If the anti-Islamic form of government prevails than the Islamic land will fall in the hands of the foreign imperialist powers. The people who rule Iran are useless. They are corrupt, tyrannical and incompetent. Therefore a revolution is necessary. An Islamic revolution is the only way to end this system of kufr. Imam Khomeini successfully preached these ideas in the nation of Iran and led to the Islamic revolution that resulted in breaking the chains of imperialist United States and Israel. The country fled into the streets to support his ideology, the righteous, faithful and Islamic ideology.

E-Commerce :: GCSE Business Marketing Coursework

E-Commerce E-commerce is rapidly becoming an excellent way to do business. It incorporates elements which are similar to those of regular commerce. The hype surrounding this new way of doing business is constantly increasing for many reasons. There are some barriers to e-commerce, but the benefits seem to far outweigh the risks. There are many elements necessary to e-commerce. First of all, you must have a product. It is also necessary to have a place. The web sit displays the product and acts as the place. There must be a way to get people to view your web site. You can market your site both on and off the web. There should also be a method of accepting orders such as and on-line form. A secure ordering page and a connection to a bank are necessary for accepting payment. It is also necessary to have a fulfillment facility to ship products to customers. However, if you are just selling software or information, fulfillment can occur with a file download mechanism. It is also important to be able to accept returns and handle warrantee claims if necessary. There should also be a method of offering customer service through e-mail, on-line forms, on-line knowledge bases, or any other on-line mechanism. Many of these elements are necessary to perform commerce, but the specifications around e-commerce are noteworthy. There is a lot of hype surrounding e-commerce. "On the retail side alone, Forrester projects $17 billion in sales to consumers over the Internet by the year 2001." According to O'Reilly and Associates, "Worldwide business access to the Web is expected to grow at an even faster rate than the US market from 1.3 million in 1996 to 8 billion by 2001." It is also documented that, "Dell currently sells about $14 million in equipment everyday, 25% of which is over the Web." The hype concerning e-commerce is justified by many of its aspects. There are many reasons why e-commerce continues to grow at an exceeding rate. E-commerce has lower transaction costs by using automating processes. It is also documented that consumers participating in e-commerce have larger purchases per transaction. A web site that is well-integrated into the business cycle can offer customers more information than previously available. A company can build a catalog on the web exceeding what would be impractical for ordinary mail order businesses.

Life in Spain in the Golden Age

The Spanish Society during their Golden Age The golden age of Spain does not exactly refer to tremendous economic growth or an excellent era of monarchial rule in peace and prosperity rather it refers to the rule of Charles II, which was characterized by the weakening of the Castile, and the deteriorating Spanish crown. According to Sedney Donell (2003), during this time, the Castilian privileged classes in various provinces of the Monarchy took advantage of the weakened Monarchy and began to take the affairs of the imperial state in their own hands, which later came to be known as the golden age of Spain (Donell 2003, p. 151). Spanish society during this time was in confusion and this was aggravated by the impact of feminization that was creating confusion on the role of men in the society. How ordinary Life was for them Life in Spain during the golden age was not ordinary as people experienced acute economin difficulty due to severe economic decline because of wars. Marcelin Defourneaux (1979) cited demographic statistics, which proves beyond doubt that â€Å"there was steep decline in the towns which formerly- and recently- had played such a vital role in the economic life of the country† (Defourneaux 1979, p. 92). Defourneaux noted during Philip II Spain’s prosperity was ruined by the waning of the Spanish economy and people had to survive mainly on land products as most of their industries had collapsed. What I could point out about Spain’s society during this time is that theirs was a stubborn society. Despite of the failures of their rulers to bring them peace and prosperity, they remained loyal to their Monarchs. A case in point was the collapsed of Charles II rule only to be replaced by a more inefficient king. Explain the Reason why Spain was like that in the Golden Age There had been several reasons why Spain was economically in distress during their golden age. Among these reasons were corruptions, wars, gender issue, and ineffective leadership. William H. Robinson and Jordi Falgas however, cited that Barcelona and Madrid suffered economic decline due to trade monopoly of King Ferdinand of Argon- Catalonia and Isabella of Castile Robinson & Falgas 2006, p. 5). All this contributed to the economic problem that Spain had suffered during their so-called ‘golden age.’ Work Cited Defourneaux, M., (1979) Daily life in the Golden Age. California: Stanford University Press. Donell, S., Feminizing the Enemy: Imperian Spain, Transvestite Dramma, and the Crises.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  .  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   USA: Bucknell University Press. Knight, C., (1840) Penny Cyclopaedia of Useful Knowledge. London: Encyclopedias & Dictionaries

Impact of Television on the Indian population.

Impact of Television on the Indian population. Free Online Research Papers Ever since the advent of modern communication technology that has allowed people around the world to communicate ever so easily, the world itself seems like a smaller space. Broadcasting is an especially effective manner through which millions of people are able to become unified on the basis that they are common recipients of a particular message. One of the most powerful transmitters of these messages is of course the television; programs of which can be seen around the world to serve many purposes. In most contemporary societies, television is a highly influential medium of Popular culture and plays an important role in the social construction of reality. (Morgan, 1990) The effects of television should therefore be recognized as having the ability to alter social, economic and political situations in its places of propagation and beyond. I will be exploring these cultural shifts in detail pertaining to India, a developing nation undergoing a grand cultural shift in part due to the rapid growth of satellite television in the 1990’s and its programming. Television is unlike any other medium of mass communication in that its social effects are prominent, and able to prompt substantial change. The strong cultural influence of television on developing nations can therefore be linked to the following factors as outlined in the book â€Å"Media and Social Changes: the modernizing influences of television in rural India.† First, television programming is easily accessible and inexpensive, which is mainly due to the fact that American television is sold inexpensively around the world after profits in its home market have already been made. Television’s potency is also a result of its broad scope and diversity of programs which therefore makes it appealing to almost anybody. Yet another reason for television’s mass appeal is its benign presence, which allows viewers to be in control of what they watch, how much they watch and when to watch it. (Johnson, 2001) Ultimately, it is these factors that propel the reliance on the medium which has the power to inflict many societal changes in developing nations such as India. Through the examination of diverse groups in India such as rural villagers, youth, women and the middle class, I intend to illustrate the vast social and cultural changes taking place in a culturally rich country, in large part due to the relatively recent popularity of television throughout the country. According to statistics the population in India was: ( see appendix 1) In 2000, it was 1,003 million people. In 2001, it was 1,019 million people. In 2002, it was 1,050 million people. In 2003, it was 1,060 million people. In 2004, it was 1,080 million people. In 2005, it was 1,094 million people. In 2006, it was 1,110 million people. While almost 75 percent of India’s one billion people live in villages,(Johnson 2001) their thoughts and actions consequently have a large influence on the country’s social, political and economic state. One of the most prolific changes in village life which can be linked directly to the influence of television is rise of consumerism in rural India. Just as we are enveloped with advertisements and endorsements which propel us to purchase that which we deem necessary, the same is true in rural India in which such things as blue jeans and hand cream have become necessities. Villagers themselves acknowledge this growing need: â€Å"I want many things that my parents never had. I want a motorcycle and a nice colour TV, I want to eat mutton once a week instead of three times a year† (Johnson 2001) Through this illustration, it is evident that needs are certainly growing and it is due to television and advertisements that the economically dependent third world is now being internally pressured to make shifts that may not be financially possible yet incredibly desirable. Another growing desire of the rural Indian population is to become urbanized, leading to a shift in behaviour and relationships.(Johnson, 2001) Not only do these villagers want to mimic the representations of their urban counterparts by changing their attire and consumer goods, their attitudes are also altered as a result. Such phenomenon can be seen as a positive shift which allows modern attitudes to flourish, through which more sensitivity and emotion are finding their ways into the rigid caste system and competition, therefore adding sentimental value to various relationships. In the case of rural parts of developing nations, mediation may also be useful as a way of educating villagers about their own country. The programs that are seen by the villagers are those which are produced in India yet reflect a Western undercurrent of values and lifestyles. The rural audience is therefore able to learn about other parts of their own country, which is useful due to the fact that many do not venture far from their village for touring purposes. Although touring the country may not be prioritized, with the glamorization of urban life through the media, many villagers are moving to urban centers in search for a better life. (Johnson 2001) The implications of such a shift are obvious in that the villages that are being abandoned are at a disadvantage, yet the urban cities have nothing to gain other than more overcrowding. Although the middle class in India is generally more urbanized and therefore more in touch with the globalizing effects of media, they resemble the villagers in terms of the effects of television on their daily lives. While villagers are enticed with what is outside their village, the urban middle class is able to see the correlation between the foreign and national trademarks. â€Å"Multinational companies consistently attempt to associate their products with signifiers of the Indian nation, for instance through sponsorship of the Indian Olympic team in the 1996 Olympics or through more subtle references to specifically Indian conditions such as the monsoon season† (Fernandes, 2000) While conglomerates such as Pepsi and Coke are striving to merge the Indian identity with their brands by sponsoring sporting events and relying on Indian celebrity endorsements, the Indian audience fails to see that what they see as sponsorship for India’s pride is actually a mere scheme to boost consumerism. It is therefore evident that just as the rural class is becoming increasingly commoditized, the middle class urban population is no different. Although many televised advertisements tug on the nationalized heartstrings, many direct correlations are also made between Indian cities and North American or European ones. In this sense, the existence of the Indian city dwellers is being justified on the basis of their city’s comparison to Western cities. It is through these processes that Indian’s are made to feel that they are being recognized, but the concern is whether this recognition is strong if it is formulated through comparison. While many of these discr ete messages are being transmitted through television and advertisements, they are transforming into ideals; and, just as the rural population is in search for an urban setting, the urban dwellers are looking towards Western societies for opportunity. According to static’s result India spends so much for their TV advertisements. (See appendix 2.) In 2002 US $718 million was spent out of US $ 37,682. In 2003 US $848 million was spent out of US $ 44,413. In 2004 US $ 899million was spent out of US $ 51,812. In 2005 US $1,034 million was spent out of US $ 61,478. In 2006 US $1,189 million was spent out of US $ 67,672. The effects of commercialism cannot be underestimated. Today’s children are besieged by manipulative commercial messages day in and day out, on TV, and even at school. Companies hire psychologists to help them target children and manipulate them; this is called the art of whine-making. The bombardment of commercial messages has created a sense of chronic dissatisfaction in children and, many psychologists think that is has contributed to the increase in teen depression. In terms of programming, television shows are either American, or Indian imitations of them. â€Å"Programs targeted specifically at the middle class are often characterized by a hybridized language which combines Hindi and English.This mixture, termed ‘Hinglish’ by the popular media, combines Hindi and English in different television shows† (Fernandes, 2000) Through this very example it is evident that Westernized ideals are seeping into Indian mainstream media through the use of television. Moreover, an important shift to consider is that while English is becoming increasingly predominant, the non-English speakers are being marginalized and degraded in their own home country. Secondly, the predominance of Hindi as the main language on television weakens the diverse languages spoken in India which have contributed to its cultural heritage for centuries. One of the most prominent examples of the hybrid of Indian and American culture is through the phenomenon of MTV and youth culture in India. â€Å"The two main foreign-owned music television channels operating in India, News Corporation’s Channel [V] and Viacom’s MTV, have followed a market strategy of aggressive â€Å"Indianization.† This has taken the form of programs featuring Indian film songs and music videos†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Juluri, 2002) Although it may hold true that television which is geared towards youth may support Indian entertainment, these channels directly model the American versions of them; therefore, enforcing a global Americanized culture upon middle-class Indian youth. Consumerism is extremely prominent among this group due to the cultural icons represented through music videos and advertisements, along with their parent’s willingness to support such spending. This seems to hold true as a characteristic of youth culture across the globe, which raises the question of whether this global identity was created to homogenize this particular group. Yet another concern that satellite television and its growing Western influence has brought about is the generational reformation of these viewers. â€Å"†¦ graduate students of classical dance and mainly Telugu Channel [V] viewers and say that they have frequently experienced discomfort (and so have their parents)because of the growing trend of obscenity in Telugu film songs (including nudity, suggestive body movements, and â€Å"double-meaning† lyrics).† (Juluri 2002) Families were once able to enjoy programs without any discrepancy among parents and children, the ever growing influence of Western ideology that ‘sex sells’ in the media has transgressed into the Indian market, and led to reformation of the family unit, creating obvious distinctions between tastes. The new trends in television broadcasting may therefore effectively deconstruct the family unit as the Western ideals transgressing through Indian television are slowly creating gaps within the home. Some young viewers of these provocative music videos seem to think that due to their promiscuous nature, that these television programs are also being aired in the West; (Juluri 2002) however, it is this misconception that demonstrates the young Indian’s desire to be recognized by its American counterparts. This ideal requires placing cultural regulations on the backburner, meeting and enjoying Westernized standards and masking them with an overarching Indian identity, all in a subconscious attempt to escape that very identity. Study has shown Television viewing occupied 10.9% of an adolescent time that is about 12 hours per week. 90% of this viewing occurred at home, 73% was done with other family members including 7% with grandparents, uncles, or aunts. This indicates that TV viewing is a typical family activity. Adolescents’ rates of viewing were correlated with mothers’ rates of viewing, with rates for both higher when mothers were unemployed. Adolescents’ TV rates were also correlated with fathers’ rates and with fathers’ type of unemployment. Study has prove, during TV viewing adolescents reported lower than average challenge, worry, and paying attention and higher than average choice, clam and relaxation. In short TV viewing of the middle class Indian youth is a relaxed antidote to the stress of the day that they share with their families. Television has a major impact on toddlers it influences their viewing habits throughout their lives. Since toddlers have a strong preference for cartoons and other programs that have characters that move fast, there is considerable likelihood that they will be exposed to large amounts of violence. Children do not become full-fledged viewers until around the age of two-and-a-half. As toddlers, they begin to pay more attention to the television set when it is on. They develop a limited ability to extract meaning from television content. At the age of eight, children are more likely to be sensitive to important moderating influences of television content, and will not become more aggressive themselves if the violence they see is portrayed as evil, as causing human suffering, or as resulting in punishment or disapproval. However, they are especially likely to show increased aggression from watching violent television if they believe the violence reflects real life, if they identify with a violent hero, or if they engage in aggressive fantasies. One major group which television watching has effected is the age group between 5-13 years of age. Television violence is accompanied by vivid production features; preschoolers are predisposed to seek out and pay attention to violence- particularly cartoon violence. It is not the violence itself that makes the cartoons attractive to preschoolers, but the accompanying vivid production features. With this preference for cartoons, preschoolers are being exposed to a large number of violent acts in their viewing day. Moreover, they are unlikely to be able to put the violence in context, since they are likely to miss any subtlety conveyed mitigating information concerning motivation and consequences. Preschoolers behave more aggressively than usual in their play after watching any high-action exciting television content, but mostly after watching violent television. Another important group that has faced major identity transformations, sparked by the engagement in television is women. In recent years, viewers of Indian film and television have witnessed a shift from portrayals of females as innocent and subordinate in nature, into independent sexual beings. (Malhotra, 2000) While India’s strong traditional heritage has always been significantly characterized by the traditional roles of women as homemakers and mothers, the portrayal of women on television has challenged this ideal, and therefore cultivated a new perception of womanhood for the Indian woman. â€Å"In the 1990s, the Indian ideal of female beauty changed to become more aligned with the Western concept of ‘thin is beautiful’. This change can be unhealthy because the average female Indian body type generally includes large hips.† (Malhotra, 2000) It is therefore evident that the increasing popularity of Western norms through television can be equated with the changing attitudes of Indian females and their bodies. The concern here is obviously the potential damage these ideals may inflict upon the health and self esteem of women exposed to such figures. One particular article which examined the portrayal of women in Indian television states, â€Å"Although many of the programs continued to relegate women to the role of either the glamorous host or the traditional housewife, there were many examples of non-traditional roles for women.† (Malhotra, 2000) Whereas traditional roles are still portrayed, and certain qualities are equated with feminism, the diversity in female roles can be viewed as an indication that women now have choices to fit into those roles that appeal to them. Through television, a range of options are presented, therefore reflecting the potential flexibility of women’s lives. The concern that arises in this case is the harsh reality of Indian culture that is caught between two contradictory gender role portrayals which may either promote female independence, or discourage it altogether. It is therefore important to consider those women who desire liberation, and are held back because they don’t coincide with traditional norms and expectations. The very concept of woman has been revolutionized by the integration of Western ideals and practices that are seeping into Indian-produced television. Conflicts are therefore surfacing which pertain to the issues of female identity. Similarly, with the recent uproar of music-based television, Indian youth culture is flourishing into an ‘Indianized’ group which depends on Western ideals to propel their tastes. This consequently, is creating drifts within the nuclear family structure, and producing a generation gap. The urban middle class, as well as rural villagers are also affected in that they now utilize commodities as a signifier of rank, and these commodities are determined by conglomerate advertising through mainstream Indian television. Television watching and physical activity both are related to obesity. However this has been investigated mainly in children. Television viewing takes up 10.9% of an adolescent’s time (about 12 hours per week) study proves. Children get glued to the television and do not exercise. They watch one program after another with out giving them self’s a break. They do not even have half an hour to do any kind of physical activities. This finally results in obesity. Socially, one of the greatest problems plaguing India today is the consequences of Americanization. Indian’s have eroticized the culture of America to such a degree where they do not realize that they are constantly consuming high priced merchandise at the expense of their own enriched diverse culture. The Indian economy is so motivated by the capital gain from multinationals that they often try to counterbalance the impact of the western images by enforcing radical Nationalistic themes. The growing popularity of television in all parts of India is therefore making way for a homogenized Indian culture whose cultural identity is becoming ever so fragile. Appendix 1. Asia Pacific Demographics Population By Country (Million) 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006(P) Australia 18.8 18.8 19.5 19.7 19.9 20.3 20.7 China 1,267 1,267 1,287 1,287 1,299 1,307 1,307 Hong Kong 6.7 6.7 6.8 6.8 6.9 6.9 7.0 India 1,003 1,019 1,050 1,060 1,080 1,094 1,110 Indonesia 210 213 216 235 238 219 221.9 Japan 126.9 127.3 127.4 127.6 127.7 127.6 127.6 Malaysia 23.3 24.0 24.5 25.1 25.6 26.1 26.6 New Zealand 3.9 3.9 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.1 4.1 Philippines 76.5 77.9 79.5 84.6 86.2 84.2 84.4 Singapore 3.3 3.3 3.4 3.4 3.5 3.6 n.a. South Korea 47.0 47.4 47.6 47.8 48.1 48.2 48.5 Taiwan 22.1 22.3 22.4 22.5 22.6 22.7 22.7 Thailand 60.5 62.9 62.8 63.1 62.0 62.4 62.4 Appendix 2. Asia Pacific Demographics TV Advertising Expenditure By Country (US$ Million) 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006(P) Australia 1,963 2,159 2,322 2,441 2,504 China 12,520 18,138 23,971 30,797 36,612 Hong Kong 702 766 845 900 1,019 India 718 848 899 1,034 1,189 Indonesia 864 1,208 1,436 1,810 2,145 Japan 15,172 14,989 15,838 17,080 16,426 Malaysia 249 270 352 354 368 New Zealand 339 389 423 438 461 Philippines 940 1,169 1,348 1,912 2,218 Singapore 405 422 489 453 311 South Korea 2,113 1,991 1,878 2,245 2,323 Taiwan 959 998 1,016 959 930 Thailand 738 866 995 1,055 1,166 Total 37,682 44,213 51,812 61,478 67,672 Bibliography Fernandes, Leela. â€Å"Nationalizing the global: media images, cultural politics and the middle class in India† Media Culture Society, 22 (2000): 611-628. Johnson, Kirk. â€Å"Media and Social Change: the modernizing influences of television in rural India† Media Culture Society. 23 (2001): 147 169. Juluri, Vamsee. â€Å"Music Television and the Invention of Youth Culture in India† Television New Media, 3 (2002): 367 386. Morgan, M. and N. Signorielli (1990) ‘Cultivation Analysis: Conceptualization and Methodology’, pp. 13–34 in N. Signorielli and M. Morgan (eds) Cultivation Analysis: New Directions in Media Effects Research. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Malhotra, S and E. Rogers. â€Å"Satellite television and the new Indian woman† Gazette, 62 (2000): 407-430. â€Å"Brand Equity TV Rating.† Retrieved June 23, 2007, from brandequity.com.my/Charts/AsiaPacific/Population_by_Country.htm. â€Å"Brand Equity – TV Rating.† Retrieved June 23, 2007 from brandequity.com.my/Charts/AsiaPacific/asiapacific_tv_advertising.html. â€Å"Impact of Television† Retrieved June 25, 2007 from http://world.std.com/~jlr/comment/tv_impact.htm. Research Papers on Impact of Television on the Indian population.Relationship between Media Coverage and Social andPETSTEL analysis of IndiaEffects of Television Violence on ChildrenMarketing of Lifeboy Soap A Unilever ProductAssess the importance of Nationalism 1815-1850 EuropeInfluences of Socio-Economic Status of Married MalesAnalysis Of A Cosmetics AdvertisementDefinition of Export QuotasAnalysis of Ebay Expanding into Asia19 Century Society: A Deeply Divided Era

Alexander Fleming Discovers Penicillin

Alexander Fleming Discovers Penicillin In 1928, bacteriologist Alexander Fleming made a chance discovery from an already discarded, contaminated Petri dish. The mold that had contaminated the experiment turned out to contain a powerful antibiotic, penicillin. However, though Fleming was credited with the discovery, it was over a decade before someone else turned penicillin into the miracle drug that has helped save millions of lives. Dirty Petri Dishes On a September morning in 1928, Alexander Fleming sat at his workbench at St. Marys Hospital after having just returned from a vacation at the Dhoon (his country house) with his family. Before he had left on vacation, Fleming had piled a number of his Petri dishes to the side of the bench so that Stuart R. Craddock could use his workbench while he was away. Back from vacation, Fleming was sorting through the long unattended stacks to determine which ones could be salvaged. Many of the dishes had been contaminated. Fleming placed each of these in an ever-growing pile in a tray of Lysol. Looking for a Wonder Drug Much of Flemings work focused on the search for a wonder drug. Though the concept of bacteria had been around since Antonie van Leeuwenhoek first described it in 1683, it wasnt until the late nineteenth century that Louis Pasteur confirmed that bacteria caused diseases. However, though they had this knowledge, no one had yet been able to find a chemical that would kill harmful bacteria but also not harm the human body. In 1922, Fleming made an important discovery, lysozyme. While working with some bacteria, Flemings nose leaked, dropping some mucus onto the dish. The bacteria disappeared. Fleming had discovered a natural substance found in tears and nasal mucus that helps the body fight germs. Fleming now realized the possibility of finding a substance that could kill bacteria but not adversely affect the human body. Finding the Mold In 1928, while sorting through his pile of dishes, Flemings former lab assistant, D. Merlin Pryce stopped by to visit with Fleming. Fleming took this opportunity to gripe about the amount of extra work he had to do since Pryce had transferred from his lab. To demonstrate, Fleming rummaged through the large pile of plates he had placed in the Lysol tray and pulled out several that had remained safely above the Lysol. Had there not been so many, each would have been submerged in Lysol, killing the bacteria to make the plates safe to clean and then reuse. While picking up one particular dish to show Pryce, Fleming noticed something strange about it. While he had been away, a mold had grown on the dish. That in itself was not strange. However, this particular mold seemed to have killed the Staphylococcus aureus that had been growing in the dish. Fleming realized that this mold had potential. What Was That Mold? Fleming spent several weeks growing more mold and trying to determine the particular substance in the mold that killed the bacteria. After discussing the mold with mycologist (mold expert) C. J. La Touche who had his office below Flemings, they determined the mold to be a Penicillium mold. Fleming then called the active antibacterial agent in the mold, penicillin. But where did the mold come from? Most likely, the mold came from La Touches room downstairs. La Touche had been collecting a large sampling of molds for John Freeman, who was researching asthma, and it is likely that some floated up to Flemings lab. Fleming continued to run numerous experiments to determine the effect of the mold on other harmful bacteria. Surprisingly, the mold killed a large number of them. Fleming then ran further tests and found the mold to be non-toxic. Could this be the wonder drug? To Fleming, it was not. Though he saw its potential, Fleming was not a chemist and thus was unable to isolate the active antibacterial element, penicillin, and could not keep the element active long enough to be used in humans. In 1929, Fleming wrote a paper on his findings, which did not garner any scientific interest. 12 Years Later In 1940, the second year of World War II, two scientists at Oxford University were researching promising projects in bacteriology that could possibly be enhanced or continued with chemistry. Australian Howard Florey and German refugee Ernst Chain began working with penicillin. Using new chemical techniques, they were able to produce a brown powder that kept its antibacterial power for longer than a few days. They experimented with the powder and found it to be safe. Needing the new drug immediately for the war front, mass production started quickly. The availability of penicillin during World War II saved many lives that otherwise would have been lost due to bacterial infections in even minor wounds. Penicillin also treated diphtheria, gangrene, pneumonia, syphilis, and tuberculosis. Recognition Though Fleming discovered penicillin, it took Florey and Chain to make it a usable product. Though both Fleming and Florey were knighted in 1944 and all three of them (Fleming, Florey, and Chain) were awarded the 1945 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, Fleming is still credited for discovering penicillin.

Risk Mitigation and Planning Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Risk Mitigation and Planning - Essay Example Mitigation, according to Helmuth von Moltke (2004), is a type of long term, pre-disaster planning wherein sustained expenditures on structural as well as non-structural efforts are involved to reduce or eliminate future risks. In practice, mitigation plans and activities are usually medium to long term and since it is an example where thinking ahead pays off in the long run mitigation is the cornerstone of emergency management. It is related concepts of long-term planning such as: 1) reconstruction which means repair or rebuilding; and 2) preparedness which means getting ready or practicing to respond. In addition to that mitigation, based on Molte (2004), â€Å"means to lessen the effects or take action toward the building and putting together of certain structures as well as plans in order that the impact of any future disaster will be ameliorated or if possible, eliminated.† To change things for the better and impact can be understood as consequences, is the meaning of amel ioration. An emergency manager might do these simple mitigation activities, which includes the following: flood insurance promotion, urging structural redesigning of buildings, raising or moving homes from flood zones or make sure that appropriate building codes, within the certain communities are present. An assessment of the threats that the community is facing is involved in mitigation planning, such as terrorist attack, as well as an assessment of possible targets. However â€Å"terrorist mitigation is somewhat controversial phase, wherein it implies special plans and to supplement an all-hazards approach is needed in practices for terrorism† (Bullock et al., 2005). In addition to that, mitigation planning is an on going process, and to ensure proper preparedness continual reassessments is necessary. Some experts argued that there is a post-disaster mitigation. Moreover a pre-disaster mitigation ought to be called prevention. According to Alexander

Strategic Management Plan for Sear's Holding Company Term Paper

Strategic Management Plan for Sear's Holding Company - Term Paper Example Sears Roebuck & Company was planned to enter into a merger with Kmart by Edward Lampert who worked as a hedge-fund manager. The merger was initiated with the aim to intensify the existence of Sears and create Sears Holding Corporation. However, the financial position of Sears Holding Corporation seemed to be worsening post merger along with a drop in their share prices. The company was learnt to be over burdened with debt. A drop was also experienced in the volume of sales of the company. Owing to all these reasons, the company was facing a huge dip in its share prices. To add more, the adjusted earnings of the company were predicted to drop considerably along with a cash crisis. The company had also failed to make payments for its respective credit lines (Laing, 2011). The waning sales, over expending on restructuring the stores, poor merchandising and unwise micromanaging was suffered by the company due to which the share price of the company was estimated to witness a decline by around 50%. As per the Fitch ratings, the company was ranked in the junk territory in terms of its debt. Furthermore, the liquidity of the company was expected to remain insufficient in the year 2012, in case the company fails to exploit the markets for fresh cash. On the other hand, the company was stated to hold a considerable share of inventory along with a significant portfolio of the possessed real estate which ranged from $8 billion to $10 billion. However, the worth of the real estate which was chiefly situated at the Borders was required to be ascertained. Therefore, with the aim to avoid such insufficiency of funds, the company is required to set an appropriate strategic management plan which would assist the company to a significant extent to overcome its seriou s financial crunch by bringing in fresh funds (Laing, 2011). The fresh strategic management plan for the company should entail few considerable alterations in its stores by getting rid of the entire soft-line inventories for the reason of enhancing the sales. The soft-line inventories would entail the poorly performing shoes, jewelry and apparel which have been believed and observed to lack the ability of appealing to the customers in the arena of soft-lines. Hence, it is required for the company to amalgamate few of the outstanding part of the inventory with the offerings of Kmart (Albrecht, Brainard, Fadgen, Jackson & Sengbusch, 2009). The company should also focus on expanding few of its product lines such as the kitchen appliances and dining furnitures. The company should also undertake necessary steps to intensify the advertising activities related to the electronic products that are offered. The mentioned alterations along with the additions would prove to be sufficient to rep lace the soft-lines products to a significant extent. The company should also try and shift its concentration on catalogue & internet retail, automotive repair, consumer appliances as well as electronics retail and supply of building material in order to diversify and attain competitive advantage. In order to strengthen the defensive walls of the company, it needs to consider the options of entering into a few selected partnerships with certain companies, particularly in the field of automotive care (Albrecht, Brainard, Fadgen, Jackson & Sengbusch, 2009). To augment the demand of the amended platform or array of products as well as services, the company requires shifting its degree of emphasis to the adults of the middle class varying from 25 years to 64 years as this particular age group is considered to hold the